Research context

Korean Webtoons represent an update in Hallyu (韩流, 한류, the Korean Wave), the products of which mix Western capitalism with Confucian values, a combination that works well for Chinese audiences (Cho 2005). Its BL genre aligns with danmei ((Cho 2005). Its BL genre aligns with danmei (耽美, BL in China), which depicts romantic relationships between boys. This type has gained interest among women in mainland China. Conceptions of masculinity in East Asia, influenced by the wen (文, cultural attainment) and wu (武, physical prowess), impact its popularity (Louie 2012). Many webtoons portray "beautiful men", displaying a refined masculinity linked to (Louie 2012). Many webtoons portray "beautiful men", displaying a refined masculinity linked to wen (Louie 2014). This matches with the preferences of many females in China. Still, some webtoons have male characters who are masculine and don't have any feminine traits (Louie 2014). This matches with the preferences of many females in China. Still, some webtoons have male characters who are masculine and don't have any feminine traits (Roy 2022). This style is more like how Westerners see male-male romance, but Chinese women still find it appealing. The confusion about the situation raises the question of whether it shows the value of (Roy 2022). This style is more like how Westerners see male-male romance, but Chinese women still find it appealing. The confusion about the situation raises the question of whether it shows the value of wu or the influence of the West on masculinity in East Asia.

These webtoons are well-known, but fans must share them on private networks since they often contain explicit content, being banned as "vulgar culture" in mainland China (Hu et al. 2024). Fan translations that use metaphors and are shared freely on fan-made websites have become the major means for them to spread. As a result of their involvement with ongoing production, fans develop a sense of belonging that is essential to the construction of their identities (Hu et al. 2024). Fan translations that use metaphors and are shared freely on fan-made websites have become the major means for them to spread. As a result of their involvement with ongoing production, fans develop a sense of belonging that is essential to the construction of their identities (Williams 2015). This is similar to the findings of (Williams 2015). This is similar to the findings of Li (2009)'s study of Chinese fans of Japanese BL manga who developed their own jargons to strengthen their sense of identification. But this technique of spreading has produced unexpected conflict between China and South Korea over these cross-cultural products.Li (2009)'s study of Chinese fans of Japanese BL manga who developed their own jargons to strengthen their sense of identification. But this technique of spreading has produced unexpected conflict between China and South Korea over these cross-cultural products.

Korean cartoonists have publicly attacked Chinese fans over social media intellectual property theft. These criticisms exacerbate online nationalism. Piracy is often justified by fans as a way to maintain cultural independence. In response to criticism from both Korean creators and domestic nationalists, fans have limited their engagement to parasocial relationships with characters and avoid nationalist pressures by distinguishing between characters and creators (Jenkins et al. 2013).(Jenkins et al. 2013).

Previous research has rarely examined the impact of nationalism on female fans within the BL Korean Webtoons fandom. Previous studies have investigated the influence of K-pop and K-drama in China (Chen 2016), analysing how they responded to anti-Hallyu sentiments and the ways in which online fandoms cultivate transnational connections (Chen 2016), analysing how they responded to anti-Hallyu sentiments and the ways in which online fandoms cultivate transnational connections (Shao 2019). Further investigations have focused on the employment of political consumerism in response to online nationalism (Shao 2019). Further investigations have focused on the employment of political consumerism in response to online nationalism (Wang 2022). Studies on transcultural BL fandom in China primarily focus on intra-fandom interactions (Wang 2022). Studies on transcultural BL fandom in China primarily focus on intra-fandom interactions (Li 2009), whereas research on (Li 2009), whereas research on danmei is largely limited to domestic contexts (Ge 2025). Some studies argue that domestic resistance to BL is indicative of the state's reinforcement of a heteronormative family structure that is central to its nationalism (Ge 2025). Some studies argue that domestic resistance to BL is indicative of the state's reinforcement of a heteronormative family structure that is central to its nationalism (Hu et al. 2023). Fans of BL Korean Webtoons may encounter heightened censorship and nationalist backlash in contrast to domestic (Hu et al. 2023). Fans of BL Korean Webtoons may encounter heightened censorship and nationalist backlash in contrast to domestic danmei, as Korean works simultaneously contest state-sanctioned hypermasculinity and are produced by foreign creators. When certain webtoons are thought to insult China or appropriate its culture, these tensions are made worse.

Methods

The methodology is informed by a digital ethnographic approach, treating online fandoms as socially situated environments in which meanings, identities, and cultural positions are negotiated (Hine 2015). This orientation supports the use of multiple methods rather than privileging one. Thus, a mixed-methods design is employed to capture observable fan behaviours and public participation routines. All data will be anonymised and stored in accordance with data protection regulations.(Hine 2015). This orientation supports the use of multiple methods rather than privileging one. Thus, a mixed-methods design is employed to capture observable fan behaviours and public participation routines. All data will be anonymised and stored in accordance with data protection regulations.

Data collection proceeds in three stages. First, a small-scale online survey (n=100-150) of Chinese and South Korean international students in the UK to map general participation patterns, including types of engagement, engagement frequency, and interaction with fandom communities. The survey will consist exclusively of closed questions and will be analysed quantitatively using SPSS, while also identifying participants for follow-up interviews.

Second, content analysis of public discussions within Korean Webtoons fandoms on Chinese social media platforms, Weibo and Redbook (dataset: posts and comment threads sampled around key fandom controversies), is conducted to identify recurring themes within fandom discussions related to nationalist sentiment, identity conflict, and anti-Korean discourse. This stage provides a contextual background of platform-level discussions for further analysis of fan practices in interviews.

Third, approximately 25 semi-structured interviews (including 5 pilot interviews) explore how Chinese fans interpret and negotiate these issues. Interviewees are recruited from the previous survey and social media platforms (Weibo and Redbook). Interview questions are informed by earlier stages, enabling a focused examination of routines, strategies, and collaborative practices. Interview data are analysed through discourse analysis with qualitative coding in MAXQDA, examining how language constructs identity and belonging.

This sequential design links survey-identified attitudinal patterns with platform-level discussion and in-depth discursive analysis of individual interpretations, enhancing the robustness and coherence of the research.

Initial findings

Initial research suggests that fans appear to cultivate a sense of belonging primarily through practices such as creating and sharing fan works, participating in discussions of trending topics, translating and circulating pirated content, and organising or joining fan-led campaigns and collective purchases.

In order to navigate the tensions between their fan identity and their national identity, many fans appear to adopt practices that reduce the visibility of their engagement with Korean media, such as refraining from paying for official Korean Webtoons platforms. Fans also rely on coded language to avoid censorship on mainland Chinese social media and create private websites for content circulation. In some cases, they even develop forms of "fan nationalism", in which the fandom itself is imagined as a nation that fans collectively construct, protect, and identify with, often prioritising loyalty to the fan community over broader national narratives. These patterns indicate that fandom operates not merely as a cultural community but a site of identity construction, where cultural nationalism is internalised within fan practices, giving rise to "fan nationalism" that both intersect with and diverge from state-centred national narratives.